Recognizing diseases

Why?

• Pest-related condition: wax moth larvae, so not a brood disease in the strict sense.
• Appearance: raised cells, often uncapped.
• Several domed or open cappings of neighbouring cells may indicate a tunnel dug by a wax moth larva.
• Other signs: silken webs and black droppings on the hive floor or the varroa floor insert.
• By tapping the frame edges, the wax moth larvae may leave the combs.
• Practical point: look for signs of wax moth and assess the general condition of the colony.
• Prevention: avoid weak colonies, do not leave unoccupied combs, renew the combs and melt down the old comb.

What to understand

Banded brood is not a brood disease in the strict sense: it mainly draws attention to a possible wax moth infestation or to a weakness of the colony. The educational benefit of this image is learning to distinguish an unusual appearance from a true sign of foulbrood, by also looking for webs, tunnels, droppings and the general condition of the colony.
 

Key takeaway

Do not conclude too quickly that it is a bacterial disease. Faced with banded brood, examine the whole comb, look for signs of wax moth and ask why the colony no longer properly occupies or protects this area.
 

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.6 Wax moth

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Sparse or patchy brood.
• Larvae most often die before capping.
• Flaccid larvae, yellowish, brownish to brown-black.
• Larvae sometimes placed upside down or in an abnormal position.
• Smell often sour, putrid, of cheese or foot sweat.
• Ropiness test: viscous, barely stringy mass, generally less than 1 cm.
• Dried-out larvae may form brown-black scales, often easy to remove.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

European foulbrood is a bacterial brood disease, but a photo is not enough to confirm the diagnosis officially. The real value of the exercise is to train the eye to recognise a suspicious situation: patchy brood, abnormal larvae, unusual position of the larvae, possible smell and rapid development of the picture.

Key takeaway

A suspicion of European foulbrood must trigger a sanitary reflex, not an improvised intervention. Do not move combs or colonies and quickly seek the advice of the bee inspector.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

Chalkbrood

• Fungal disease of the brood.
• Affects worker and drone brood.
• Dead larvae turned into hard mummies.
• Colour changing from white to grey then black.
• Mummies visible in the morning on the hive floor or the alighting board.
• When shaking the combs, the mummies may produce a rattling sound in the cells.
• Brood sometimes patchy.
• Favoured by weak colonies, chilling of the brood, high humidity or poor nutritional supply.
• Risk of confusion with European foulbrood.

Banded brood

• Pest-related condition: wax moth larvae, so not a brood disease in the strict sense.
• Appearance: raised cells, often uncapped.
• Several domed or open cappings of neighbouring cells may indicate a tunnel dug by a wax moth larva.
• Other signs: silken webs and black droppings on the hive floor or the varroa floor insert.
• By tapping the frame edges, the wax moth larvae may leave the combs.
• Practical point: look for signs of wax moth and assess the general condition of the colony.
• Prevention: avoid weak colonies, do not leave unoccupied combs, renew the combs and melt down the old comb.

What to understand

One and the same comb can show several phenomena at once: here, signs compatible with chalkbrood and an appearance of banded brood. The benefit of the quiz is learning to separate the signs instead of looking for a single label: hard mummies for chalkbrood, raised cells or possible tunnels for the wax moth.

Key takeaway

Describe each sign separately before concluding. This avoids confusing a fungal disease, a pest-related condition and a suspicion of foulbrood, which do not call for the same measures.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.4 Chalkbrood
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.6 Wax moth

Why?

• No disease: normal or physiological appearance of a comb.
• Compact and regular brood, with few empty cells.
• Cappings not perforated.
• Healthy larvae: pearly, glossy, lying in the brood food, with visible segments.
• Possible presence of pollen or bee bread in the food wreath.
• Educational point: pollen can make the comb look less homogeneous, without indicating a disease.
• Practical point: distinguish brood, pollen, stores and empty cells.

What to understand

Healthy brood with pollen is a valuable reference image: it shows that a comb can look visually irregular without being diseased. The educational benefit is to calibrate the eye so as not to interpret every colour variation, every pollen cell or every gap as a pathological sign.

Key takeaway

Before looking for a disease, clearly distinguish brood, pollen, stores and empty cells. Recognising the normal is essential to correctly identify the abnormal.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 4.7.3 Recognising healthy colonies

Why?

• Pest-related condition: wax moth larvae, so not a brood disease in the strict sense.
• Appearance: raised cells, often uncapped.
• Several domed or open cappings of neighbouring cells may indicate a tunnel dug by a wax moth larva.
• Other signs: silken webs and black droppings on the hive floor or the varroa floor insert.
• By tapping the frame edges, the wax moth larvae may leave the combs.
• Practical point: look for signs of wax moth and assess the general condition of the colony.
• Prevention: avoid weak colonies, do not leave unoccupied combs, renew the combs and melt down the old comb.

What to understand

Banded brood is first of all an observation signal: it forces one to look at the structure of the cells, the occupation of the comb and any signs of wax moth. The benefit of this image is to show that an unusual appearance must not automatically be classified as foulbrood.

Key takeaway

Name what is visible before interpreting: shape of the cells, cappings, possible tunnels, larvae, pollen and regularity of the brood nest. This approach reduces the risk of a too-rapid diagnosis.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.6 Wax moth

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Sparse or patchy brood.
• Larvae most often die before capping.
• Flaccid larvae, yellowish, brownish to brown-black.
• Larvae sometimes placed upside down or in an abnormal position.
• Smell often sour, putrid, of cheese or foot sweat.
• Ropiness test: viscous, barely stringy mass, generally less than 1 cm.
• Dried-out larvae may form brown-black scales, often easy to remove.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

European foulbrood can also appear in drone brood. The benefit of this image is to recall that the type of brood is not enough to provide reassurance: one must observe the quality of the larvae, the regularity of the brood, suspicious cells and the development of the colony.

Key takeaway

Drone brood can reveal a health problem. As long as European foulbrood remains possible, caution prevails: limit the handling and seek competent confirmation.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Sparse or patchy brood.
• Larvae most often die before capping.
• Flaccid larvae, yellowish, brownish to brown-black.
• Larvae sometimes placed upside down or in an abnormal position.
• Smell often sour, putrid, of cheese or foot sweat.
• Ropiness test: viscous, barely stringy mass, generally less than 1 cm.
• Dried-out larvae may form brown-black scales, often easy to remove.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

European foulbrood is not recognised by a single isolated detail, but by a set of signs in the brood. The value of this card is to train a global reading: patchy appearance, abnormal larvae, age of the affected brood and consistency with the general condition of the colony.

Key takeaway

The right answer in the quiz serves to learn the reflex of suspicion. At the apiary, a suspicion must be confirmed through the official channel before any management decision.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

• Not a disease: normal or physiological appearance of a comb.
• Compact and regular brood, with few empty cells.
• Cappings not perforated.
• Healthy larvae: pearly, glossy, lying in the brood food, with visible segments.
• Possible presence of pollen or bee bread in the food wreath.
• Educational point: pollen can make the comb look less homogeneous, without indicating a disease.
• Practical point: distinguish brood, pollen, stores and empty cells.

What to understand

Pollen can make a comb visually less homogeneous, but it is part of the colony's normal functioning. The benefit of this image is learning not to confuse a natural organisation of the brood nest with diseased or patchy brood.

Key takeaway

A good diagnosis begins with recognising the normal. Observe the gloss of the larvae, the regularity of the cappings and the place of the pollen before looking for a disease.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 4.7.3 Recognising healthy colonies

Why?

• Pest-related condition: wax moth larvae, so not a brood disease in the strict sense.
• Appearance: raised cells, often uncapped.
• Several domed or open cappings of neighbouring cells may indicate a tunnel dug by a wax moth larva.
• Other signs: silken webs and black droppings on the hive floor or the varroa floor insert.
• By tapping the frame edges, the wax moth larvae may leave the combs.
• Practical point: look for signs of wax moth and assess the general condition of the colony.
• Prevention: avoid weak colonies, do not leave unoccupied combs, renew the combs and melt down the old comb.

What to understand

Comparing several images of banded brood brings a real learning benefit: the eye begins to recognise a recurring pattern instead of memorising a single photo. This appearance must be linked to the possible presence of wax moth and to the colony's ability to occupy its combs.

Key takeaway

The repetition of similar cases helps to stabilise the observation. Always look for the associated signs: tunnels, webs, droppings, unoccupied combs or a weakened colony.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.6 Wax moth

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Patchy brood, with empty or irregular cells.
• Larvae die mainly in capped cells.
• Brownish larval mass under the cappings.
• Cappings often sunken, dark or perforated.
• Ropiness test: stringy mass, with threads of at least 1 cm.
• Possible smell: fresh quark at the start, putrid bone glue at an advanced stage.
• At an advanced stage: dark brown to black scales, adhering to the bottom of the cells.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

American foulbrood scales are a major health signal, because they can contain highly resistant and highly contaminating spores. The benefit of this image is to make it clear that some visual signs serve not only to name a disease, but to trigger a cautious approach immediately.

Key takeaway

In the event of a suspicion of American foulbrood, do not scrape, clean, move or reuse the material. The priority is to avoid any dissemination and to contact the bee inspector.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.1 American foulbrood

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Sparse or patchy brood.
• Larvae most often die before capping.
• Flaccid larvae, yellowish, brownish to brown-black.
• Larvae sometimes placed upside down or in an abnormal position.
• Smell often sour, putrid, of cheese or foot sweat.
• Ropiness test: viscous, barely stringy mass, generally less than 1 cm.
• Dried-out larvae may form brown-black scales, often easy to remove.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

European foulbrood can take variable forms, which explains why it is sometimes difficult to distinguish from other brood anomalies on a single image. The benefit of the quiz is learning to accept this uncertainty and to combine several signs rather than seeking immediate certainty.

Key takeaway

The right reflex is not to treat it oneself, but to secure the observation. If the suspicion persists, avoid moving material and ask a competent person for confirmation.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

• Not a disease: normal or physiological appearance of a comb.
• Compact and regular brood, with few empty cells.
• Cappings not perforated.
• Healthy larvae: pearly, glossy, lying in the brood food, with visible segments.
• Possible presence of pollen or bee bread in the food wreath.
• Educational point: pollen can make the comb look less homogeneous, without indicating a disease.
• Practical point: distinguish brood, pollen, stores and empty cells.

What to understand

An image of healthy brood has as much value as an image of disease: it provides a point of comparison. The educational benefit is to reduce false diagnoses and to learn what to expect from regular, living and well-maintained brood.

Key takeaway

Being able to recognise healthy brood allows the true anomalies to be detected better. In a health quiz, the normal examples prevent training the eye to see a disease everywhere.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 4.7.3 Recognising healthy colonies

Why?

• Suspicion of a bacterial disease, with a possible differential diagnosis with a fungal disease.
• Ambiguous case: do not present it as a certain diagnosis.
• Signs in favour of European foulbrood: patchy brood, yellowish to brownish larvae, badly positioned larvae, sour or putrid smell, barely stringy mass in the ropiness test.
• Signs in favour of chalkbrood: hard mummies, whitish to grey/black, rattling sound in the cells, mummies on the floor or the alighting board.
• Key point: chalkbrood can be confused with European foulbrood.
• Recommended wording: "suspicion of European foulbrood; possibly chalkbrood, to be confirmed by a competent person".
• If European foulbrood remains possible: do not move combs or colonies and contact the bee inspector.

What to understand

This type of image is particularly instructive, because it does not allow a simple conclusion. The benefit of the exercise is learning to formulate a reasonable suspicion and to keep a differential diagnosis open, in particular between European foulbrood and chalkbrood.

Key takeaway

When foulbrood remains possible, sanitary caution must guide what follows, even if another cause seems plausible. Do not move material and have the case confirmed.

Further reading

• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.4 Chalkbrood

Why?

• Suspicion of a bacterial disease, with a possible differential diagnosis with a fungal disease.
• Ambiguous case: do not present it as a certain diagnosis.
• Signs in favour of European foulbrood: patchy brood, yellowish to brownish larvae, badly positioned larvae, sour or putrid smell, barely stringy mass in the ropiness test.
• Signs in favour of chalkbrood: hard mummies, whitish to grey/black, rattling sound in the cells, mummies on the floor or the alighting board.
• Key point: chalkbrood can be confused with European foulbrood.
• Recommended wording: "suspicion of European foulbrood; possibly chalkbrood, to be confirmed by a competent person".
• If European foulbrood remains possible: do not move combs or colonies and contact the bee inspector.

What to understand

The educational value of this card lies in the uncertainty: recognising a doubt is a sanitary skill. It shows that one can observe signs partially compatible with several causes and that one must then look for other signs on the whole colony.

Key takeaway

A suspicion of foulbrood must remain a priority as long as it is not ruled out. In practice, it is better to act cautiously and seek a competent opinion than to trivialise an ambiguous image.

Further reading

• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.4 Chalkbrood

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Sparse or patchy brood.
• Larvae most often die before capping.
• Flaccid larvae, yellowish, brownish to brown-black.
• Larvae sometimes placed upside down or in an abnormal position.
• Smell often sour, putrid, of cheese or foot sweat.
• Ropiness test: viscous, barely stringy mass, generally less than 1 cm.
• Dried-out larvae may form brown-black scales, often easy to remove.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

European foulbrood must be spotted early, because it can develop and spread within an apiary. The benefit of the quiz is to accustom the beekeeper to examining the brood systematically, even when the colony still seems active.

Key takeaway

Faced with a suspicion of European foulbrood, the aim is not to "save" the comb by a quick manipulation, but to limit the risk of spread and to have the observation confirmed.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

• Fungal disease of the brood.
• Affects worker and drone brood.
• Dead larvae turned into hard mummies.
• Colour changing from white to grey then black.
• Mummies visible in the morning on the hive floor or the alighting board.
• When shaking the combs, the mummies may produce a rattling sound in the cells.
• Brood sometimes patchy.
• Favoured by weak colonies, chilling of the brood, high humidity or poor nutritional supply.
• Risk of confusion with European foulbrood.

What to understand

Chalkbrood is a fungal disease whose importance depends on the intensity of the symptoms, their persistence and the condition of the colony. The benefit of this image is learning to distinguish a few isolated mummies from a broader problem of climate, strength or brood hygiene.

Key takeaway

Observe the quantity of mummies, their location and the development over the course of visits. A one-off case does not have the same significance as a massive or recurring picture.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.4 Chalkbrood

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Patchy brood, with empty or irregular cells.
• Larvae die mainly in capped cells.
• Brownish larval mass under the cappings.
• Cappings often sunken, dark or perforated.
• Ropiness test: stringy mass, with threads of at least 1 cm.
• Possible smell: fresh quark at the start, putrid bone glue at an advanced stage.
• At an advanced stage: dark brown to black scales, adhering to the bottom of the cells.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

American foulbrood is a serious bacterial brood disease and must not be treated like a mere visual anomaly. The benefit of this card is to reinforce the biosecurity reflex: an image can give guidance, but only the competent authorities confirm and prescribe the measures.

Key takeaway

Faced with a suspicion of American foulbrood, avoid any possible dissemination: do not move combs, do not exchange material and contact the bee inspector.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.1 American foulbrood

Why?

• Possible bacterial disease, with the simultaneous presence of pollen.
• Pollen is not a sign of disease.
• But the presence of pollen does not rule out European foulbrood.
• The criteria to observe remain: patchy brood, flaccid larvae, yellowish to brownish, badly positioned larvae, suspicious smell, a possible barely stringy mass.
• The educational risk is to conclude too quickly that a comb is healthy because one sees pollen.
• Recommended wording: "European foulbrood with pollen" or, if the image is less clear, "suspicion of European foulbrood with presence of pollen".

What to understand

The presence of pollen can divert attention, but it does not rule out a brood anomaly. The benefit of this image is learning to read two pieces of information at the same time: normal stores can coexist with a health problem.

Key takeaway

Do not conclude that a comb is healthy solely because it contains pollen. If the brood remains suspicious, apply the same precautions as for any suspicion of European foulbrood.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

• Bacterial disease, notifiable disease.
• Sparse or patchy brood.
• Larvae most often die before capping.
• Flaccid larvae, yellowish, brownish to brown-black.
• Larvae sometimes placed upside down or in an abnormal position.
• Smell often sour, putrid, of cheese or foot sweat.
• Ropiness test: viscous, barely stringy mass, generally less than 1 cm.
• Dried-out larvae may form brown-black scales, often easy to remove.
• If suspected: contact the bee inspector immediately.

What to understand

The repetition of several examples of European foulbrood brings a real benefit: it shows that the disease does not always present itself in an identical way. The aim is to recognise a family of suspicious signs rather than a single image learned by heart.

Key takeaway

The more a brood pattern appears suspicious, the more the handling must be reduced and competent confirmation sought. The quiz trains the eye, but it does not replace the official diagnosis.

Further reading

• Practical Guide: 2 Diseases and pests
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.2 European foulbrood

Why?

• Viral infection, strongly linked to a high varroa infestation.
• Atrophied, deformed or unusable wings.
• Abdomen sometimes shortened.
• Symptoms easier to spot in or near the brood nest.
• Some bees already die in the cells before emergence.
• Varroa actively transmits the virus.
• In the event of heavy infestation: treat immediately against varroa according to the prevailing health concept.
• Practical point: do not treat DWV as an isolated problem; the varroa pressure of the whole colony must be assessed.

What to understand

This image shows the benefit of a global reading: several problems can coexist in the same colony. A suspicion of European foulbrood requires sanitary caution, while Deformed Wing Virus also points towards an assessment of varroa pressure.

Key takeaway

Do not reduce this type of image to a single label. Note each sign separately, check the overall health status of the colony and act with caution if foulbrood remains possible.

Further reading

• Deformed wing disease
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2.8 Varroosis
• Official SSA Practical Guide: 2 Overview of diseases and pests