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Depiction:
Replacing old frames is part of the classical recommendations in beekeeping. In practice, however, this measure is often postponed, mainly for economic reasons or due to underestimation of its biological effects. Yet several experimental studies show that comb age directly influences bee morphology, colony demographic dynamics, honey productivity, as well as the accumulation of contaminants in the hive (Berry & Delaplane, 2001 ; Abd Al-Fattah et al., 2021 ; Taha et al., 2021 ; Meng et al., 2025).
Bees are remarkable animals. Did you know that they have existed for more than 65 million years (around 260 times longer than humans) and that they are the only insects in the world that produce a food consumed by humans without any processing.
The insulation of beehives during winter has long been the subject of debate within the beekeeping community. While some studies emphasize its beneficial effects on reducing energy consumption and improving colony survival (St. Clair et al., 2022; Alburaki & Corona, 2021), others highlight its limitations and potential side effects, particularly when it disrupts the natural thermoregulation mechanisms of the superorganism (Mitchell, 2023; Minaud et al., 2024).
This review article analyses honeybee colony losses from an immunological perspective, focusing on how diverse environmental and ecological stressors affect immune competence. It synthesizes current knowledge on the innate and social immune mechanisms of Apis mellifera and examines how pathogens, parasites, pesticides and nutritional stress interact. Particular attention is given to synergistic effects between stressors and their implications for colony collapse disorder. The review also discusses nutritional, natural-product and technological strategies proposed to support honeybee health, while highlighting the need for integrated and evidence-based management approaches.
The effects of malnutrition in bees are well documented. There is an interaction between individual bees and the colony, and individual problems are reflected in the adult population and brood, which are reduced both qualitatively and quantitatively. Antonio Gómez Pajuelo is recognised as one of the world’s experts on bee nutrition. He conducted a survey involving 166 beekeepers.
In the hive, as we have seen, water serves multiple purposes: it is indispensable for both mature and immature individuals and also enables bees to regulate the nest climate during periods of high heat. As water is hardly stored within the hive, it must be brought in from outside as needs arise. This task is carried out by water carriers, specialised foragers that continue their work even under adverse conditions.
A bee colony requires tranquillity throughout the beekeeping season, and probably even more so during the winter months. If an overly curious beekeeper opens the hive indiscriminately, the constantly disturbed colony becomes stressed. The behaviour of this superorganism changes: energy consumption increases, the reserves of its valuable fat body are depleted, immune defences against varroa and the viruses it transmits are inhibited, the development of the worker population and brood slows down, and the colony ultimately collapses into a vicious downward spiral (► Infernal cascade: Chronicle of a foretold death).
Beeswax is a biologically relevant compartment within the colony. It can act as a reservoir for pathogens and chemical contaminants and influence brood development and certain colony performance parameters. Structured management of the wax cycle, including regular renewal of brood combs, therefore appears to be a scientifically based lever for reducing the cumulative accumulation of risks.
This scientific review analyzes 191 field studies published since 1995 in order to identify beekeeping practices and biosecurity measures that have demonstrated a measurable effect on colony health and productivity. In total, 744 “practice records” were extracted and structured according to theme, region, and season of application. The objective is to propose an analytical framework to guide beekeeping decisions based on comparative trials conducted under real-world conditions. The methodically structured review character is central to this synthesis, which highlights both dominant practices and research gaps.
By Claude Pfefferlé and Serge Imboden
Long regarded as a model of uninterrupted activity, the honey bee nevertheless continues to surprise researchers. Recent studies have revealed that it sleeps, and that this sleep plays an essential role in regulating its memory, physiology, and group cohesion. Understanding how and why bees sleep is to open a window onto the health of the hive—and onto the balance of life itself.
Principles, method and key control points
Inspecting a hive is neither a trivial action nor an automatic routine. Each opening disrupts the colony’s internal balance: brood temperature, humidity, spatial organisation and chemical communication. Field observations show that after an inspection, a colony may need 24 to 48 hours to fully restore its functional equilibrium.
The modern beekeeper therefore does not inspect out of curiosity, but to address a clearly defined objective. A sound inspection is based on a simple logic: observe → diagnose → decide → close, aiming to obtain the maximum amount of information with the minimum level of intrusion.
What beekeepers should know about exposure, immune reactions, and protection
Among beekeepers, bee stings constitute a frequent occupational exposure, often trivialized and traditionally associated with the idea of tolerance acquired through repeated exposure. This widely held representation is based on genuine empirical observations, but it only partially reflects the documented clinical and immunological reality.
Création de nuclei
Why multiply colonies? This may be done to increase stock numbers, renew colonies, benefit from the vigour of young queens, select preferred colonies, and so on. In nature, bees have three methods of reproduction: swarming (the natural reproduction of bees), requeening (replacement of a deficient or ageing queen), and emergency queen rearing (loss of the queen). Beekeepers also have various methods at their disposal to artificially multiply their stock; these procedures are more or less complex and range from simple division to queen rearing by grafting (picking). The objective, for both the bee and the beekeeper, is to produce a queen so that she can establish a new colony.
Nature ensures the multiplication of colonies through swarming, but beekeepers prefer colonies that develop well and become strong without swarming. A colony that intends to swarm (swarming fever) stops building comb and collects little nectar. Swarms are often lost, especially for beekeepers whose apiaries are far away. In addition, a parent colony that has swarmed requires special attention and care. What can the beekeeper do?
Too often, the drawer is used solely to detect the presence, more or less abundant, of natural debris from dead varroa mites. Yet the drawer is a mirror of the life of the colony just above it… If the beekeeper takes the time to examine it regularly, the observed elements, waste, fragments, and other residues provide valuable information about colony dynamics and health. Examination of the drawer must always be correlated with the beekeeping calendar: the interpretation of a drawer inspected in summer will be very different from that of the same drawer opened at Christmas.
The weakening of a bee colony is rarely the result of a single factor: it is most often a gradual process in which several constraints interact and reduce the resilience of the superorganism. This summary presents a conceptual model organized into three main self-amplifying spirals: an infection spiral, a cooling spiral, and a starvation spiral. As long as the population remains sufficient and healthy, the colony can compensate for temporary disturbances, but when resilience declines, regulatory mechanisms become fragile and the dynamics of weakening accelerate. The practical benefit is to help beekeepers recognize weak signals earlier and intervene before several spirals set in simultaneously.
Ideally, high-quality honey has a water content not exceeding 17.5%. This allows the beekeeper to sell honey of high quality that does not ferment once it reaches the consumer.
This article provides a structured synthesis of current scientific knowledge on the factors influencing honey quality. It is based exclusively on a recent literature review, examining honey composition, quality criteria, the impact of beekeeping and environmental practices, as well as the links between colony management, honey processing, and biological properties.
Planning the beekeeping season makes it possible to prepare optimally for upcoming activities with our bees. Thanks to the operating concept developed by apiservice, this is easy to implement for all beekeepers. It is an indispensable tool for effective apiary management. The operating concept can be personalised and allows for a clear visualisation of beekeeping activities and the planning of the appropriate work.
Our bee populations are not able to defend themselves against varroa on their own. They therefore rely on you, beekeepers, to help them. To this end, the varroa management concept developed by the Swiss Bee Health Service (SBHS) can be a valuable aid. All aide-memoires available at: www.ApiService.ch
Le traitement estival contre le varroa constitue un élément essentiel du concept de lutte contre le varroa. Il vise à réduire efficacement l’infestation après la récolte du miel afin de protéger l’élevage des abeilles d’hiver. L’aide-mémoire donne une vue d’ensemble des méthodes autorisées et de leurs conditions d’application. Les informations suivantes sont basées sur l’aide-mémoire officiel 1.2 du Service sanitaire apicole suisse.